THE TOYOTA PRODUCTION SYSTEM ’ S FUNDAMENTAL NATURE AT SELECTED SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATIONS – A LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

The Toyota Production System (TPS) has been cited as being the pinnacle of continuous improvement approaches in manufacturing organisations, and many models of the TPS are well known. However, some authors question the effectiveness of established approaches, and propose Bateson’s theory of learning [1] to be an effective way to explain phenomena like the TPS. This paper investigates the degree to which TPS elements are found in selected South African organisations. It constructs a model of the TPS using Bateson's theory of learning as a framework. The adoption of TPS elements is investigated through multiple qualitative case studies in seven organisations. The analysis follows a clustering and crosscase approach combined with pattern matching. While elements vary in their use, the selected organisations practise the TPS substantially less than the model advocates, with the model being least practised in low volume job/batch manufacturing. Product-process differences and higher levels of the TPS model may clarify peculiar outcomes.


INTRODUCTION
Application of 'lean manufacturing', or the Toyota Production System (TPS), has become normative in modern operations management [2].Given the effort expended in applying these principles, it may be helpful, before embarking on its implementation or when trying to adopt new elements, to understand what the likely adoption of different elements of the TPS would be.This may allow those tasked with its implementation -often industrial engineers -to focus their energy where the greatest likelihood of adoption would be.
Multiple authors have commented on what is required for adoption of the TPS within an organisation.For example: • Womack and Jones [3] suggest that adoption would be relative to the availability of strong, TPS-capable, senior leadership • Liker and Hoseus [4] assert that adoption depends upon a sufficient emphasis on Toyota's culture • Hayes and Wheelwright [5], although not directly commenting on the TPS, suggest that adoption of manufacturing techniques would suit product-process combinations, i.e. high-volume repetitive manufacturing, that would adopt a different set of principles to low volume job-shop environments.
This paper tests the prevalence (or adoption) of the TPS at selected South African organisations through a case study approach.The ingoing hypothesis is that: The greater the similarity to products and processes of the TPS, the greater the adoption of its operations management principles will be, as in Hayes and Wheelwright's matrix [5].
We do not conclude with definitive outcomes, but rather build towards a theory that may be explored in further research.

Introduction
Many models explain manufacturing systems in general.For example, Cachon and Terwiesch [6] use a basic process view, Wu [7] suggests an object-oriented modelling approach partially based on systems theory, and Cochran et al. [8] separate objectives and means, and associate behaviours with outcomes.Hayes and Wheelwright [5] construct a matrix that explains the interplay between product selection and manufacturing processes and its corresponding strengths and weaknesses in corporate strategy.
There are also many models that may be used to explain the functioning of the TPS.These include the Shingo prize [2], Liker's fourteen management principles of the Toyota Way [9], and Womack and Jones' five lean principles [3], to name a few.
All these models may be applied to understand or specify the TPS.However, Ballé and Régnier [10] and Ohba [11] suggest that a potential shortcoming is the lack of reference to a 'learning' system.Although many authors (e.g.[9,12,13,14]) refer to 'learning' as part of their description of the TPS, they do not specifically refer to the TPS as a learning system.
Ballé et al. [15] and Johnson [16] go further and state that Bateson's theory of learning [1] may be the best known way -albeit currently missing from available discourse -to describe the TPS, as it could capture the element of learning or continuous improvement -a critical part of the TPS -from different perspectives, contexts, and levels.
Proceeding with this suggestion, a study of Bateson's theory of learning was conducted to construct a model of the TPS.

Bateson's theory of learning
Bateson maintains that a distinction between a class (e.g. a strategy) and its members (e.g.activities linking to that strategy) is necessary when studying behavioural phenomena such as learning, and that the notion of repeatable context is a necessary premise for any theory that defines learning as change.This understanding allows for the definition of levels to describe learning: • Level Zero is a situation where no learning takes place -i.e. a similar response given similar stimuli.
• Level One is an instance where an entity gives a different response at a future point to the same stimulus in a current situation.
• Level Two takes place when a previous learning, which happened in a specific context, is judged as appropriate and applied in another context.
• Level Three is a correction in the system of the contexts of Level Two.

Application
To construct a model of the TPS using Bateson, the contemporary application of his theory of learning is first studied.When describing a system, Bateson [1], Bredo [17], and Tosey ([18,19,20,21]) suggest studying the class or context of a lower level, as it informs higher levels of learning.For example, measuring the presence or absence of Level Zero will inform the presence or absence of Level One, as only changes in context enlighten organisational learning.Dilts [22] suggests that, in an organisational system, Level Zero may refer to the environment, behaviours, or capabilities; Level One to the strategy of an organisation; Level Two to its values or beliefs; and Level Three to its greater purpose or vision.
This research describes the TPS on four levels (Zero -activities, One -strategies, Twovalues, and Three -purpose), illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Nature of the TPS using Bateson
Level One is positioned as a system's fundamental nature, with Level Zero (activities) informing Level One (strategies).Level Two (values) acts as the context in which Level One (strategies) is executed, with Level Three (purpose) providing a meta-context that gives Level Two (values) significance.
From relevant literature about the TPS, and from visits to Toyota South Africa Motors, twelve strategies of the TPS (informed by 48 activities), five values, and four purposes are identified.

Level 1
Level 2 Level 3 Level 0 Descriptions of each activity of TPS Level Zero are used for later comparisons with selected organisations.These are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1: Summary of TPS Level Zero (activities) and Level One (strategies)
Strategies (TPS Level One)
Figure 2: A model of the TPS using Bateson's theory of learning

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Seven cases 3 were selected to test the hypothesis (see Table 2).A number of considerations were balanced in case selection, with participating organisations required to: • have a formal improvement programme in place, influenced by the TPS; • be small to medium in size (to allow ease in understanding approach and process); and • be balanced across the spectrum of Hayes and Wheelwright's matrix [5], i.e. include high and low volume manufacturing.
Service organisations were also included, to allow contrast with high and low volume manufacturing.The unit of analysis is each selected South African organisation, and the method of gathering data, is through a qualitative multiple case study 4 .

A
The analytical strategy relied on the theoretical hypothesis, developed through the literature study, to guide the analysis of the data.To ensure validity, detailed definitions were specified on what the presence of an activity, strategy, value, or purpose constitutesallowing the researcher to be consistent in analysing evidence gathered (see Table 3 below for one example of definitions used for a particular strategy -'Increase Customer Value').
Data was gathered through multiple sources of evidence: interactive presentation feedback, interviews, and structured observations, assisted by explicit definitions and the use of matrices.All the information was captured in an electronic database to allow analysis.
• Interactive presentation: each participating organisation was asked to invite a cross-section of their management team to a session where the Bateson-TPS model was presented to their organisation.Participants were asked to record notes on current application on a predesigned template (if practised).The same presentation was repeated/presented to each case.• Interviews: typically the CEO, a person on a level reporting directly to him or her (e.g. a senior manager), and a person on a level reporting directly to a senior manager (e.g. a mid-level manager) were interviewed on their recent resolution of two problems.This could indicate learning, and reveal some of the strategies used to overcome these problems.• Structured observations: the twelve strategies of the TPS Level One (with detailed activity definitions guiding observations) were used as a framework during a guided walkabout.Evidence was sought to corroborate claims made during the interviews or presentation of strategies and activities being practised.
Reliability was addressed through a high level of specificity, the use of case-study protocol, and use of a database, as well as using Case One as a pilot case to inform the research design and methodology.
Interpretation was argumentative and thematic, supported by the use of the matrices and database software, working with close to a thousand pieces of evidence gathered.To answer whether a specific TPS Level One strategy was prevalent or practised in any of the cases, a judgement was first made on the TPS Level Zero activities, after which this was used to inform whether or not a strategy was present in a specific case.The research protocol specified that if any of the possible definitions were met, then it was judged as 'some evidence present' for an activity.If none of the possible definitions were present, it was judged as 'no evidence found to suggest activity is present'.This allowed a matrix of activities against cases to be constructed (see Table 4 below), with each definition statement carrying equal weight.Lastly, to answer the main research question, a meta-matrix clustered the information through an ordered summary tabulation, according to the twelve strategies of the TPS Level One (see Table 5 in the results section).Each activity held equal weight in constructing the matrix.

RESEARCH RESULTS
To answer how prevalent the fundamental nature of the TPS is, the total number of activities for which evidence was found was recorded in the table below.As an example, Table 3 shows 'some evidence' found for one of the four activities of 'Increase customer value' Case One.After repeating this exercise for all seven cases, Table 4 was compiled.Table 4's summary row was then transferred to the meta-matrix below.If all the activities informing strategies are tallied, the maximum score is 48.In addition, each case is listed as HV, LV, or SO, indicating its type according to case selection criteria -i.e.high-volume manufacturer, low-volume manufacturer, or service organisation.An equal weighting was applied to all activities measured.Table 5 shows the results for each case, as well as the average for each strategy.a a a a a The outcome shows that the twelve strategies that comprise the fundamental nature of the TPS are found to be practised: 1. substantially less by the selected organisations than the Bateson-TPS model propagates; 2. to differing degrees; 3. the most, and to a similar degree in general, when comparing high-volume manufacturers with service organisations.

Manufacturing organisations
Results similar to the main hypothesis suggest that the comparison with the Bateson-TPS model may be explained by looking at product-process combinations postulated by Hayes and Wheelwright [5].The high volume manufacturers show a greater presence of the strategies and tactics of Toyota's improvement model compared with low volume manufacturers, as shown visually in Figure 3.

Service organisations
A peculiar outcome is the comparatively high prevalence of strategies of the Bateson-TPS model at selected service organisations.A potential explanation was found through applying Bredo [17], and Tosey [20].
• Bredo suggests higher Bateson levels may contain information that explains the lower levels, just as higher order learning informs lower level activities, and the lower level activities help inform higher levels.

•
Tosey argues that people will always adjust their ways based on the metacommunication present, as 'different levels of learning are simultaneous and mutually influencing'.
This implies that, should evidence be found for the presence of the higher levels of the TPS model, it might indicate that lower levels will also be present.Figures 4 and 5 show that service organisations did indeed have the most support for the higher levels of the Bateson-TPS model, thus potentially explaining the relatively high presence of lower levels of the Bateson-TPS model shown previously (analysis for higher done definitions and approach as for lower levels5 ).

CONCLUSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH
The nature of case study research does not lend itself to making definitive conclusions.Rather, it allows the researcher to gather evidence in support of a theory 6 .Two theories are presented that gathered some support through this research: a) In line with the main hypothesis, adoption of activities and strategies of operations management approaches such as the TPS may be explained to some extent by product-process combinations, as provided by Hayes and Wheelwright's product process matrix [5] b) Presence of higher dimensions of the TPS model developed (i.e.values and purpose) may be an indicator of the adoption of lower levels (i.e.strategies and tactics) In other words, the case study results show the benefit of understanding the learningcontext in which the TPS operates.Firstly, product-process combinations may indicate the likelihood of adoption of TPS principles, and might guide practitioners in selecting appropriate improvement models.Secondly, the multi-dimensional model developed may have the potential to explain the absence or presence of certain activities and strategies of the TPS not explained by product-process combinations.This may be used to augment existing 'lean' models that do not explicitly focus on the context (both learning and otherwise) in which the TPS operates.
Further research may verify these findings and expand to the general Bateson model proposed, e.g.: • What are the boundary conditions required for the presence of higher levels of the Bateson-TPS model to predict lower level outcomes?• What is the correlation between success of implementation (e.g. through measuring change in inventory-turn) compared with the relative position on the product-process matrix or the presence of higher levels of the Bateson-TPS model?• Are organisations more successful in achieving lean outcomes (e.g.reducing cost of manufacturing, working capital, quality defects, etc.) when they focus on elements of the TPS model that are likely to be adopted by their organisation?• Can organisations create an environment that is conducive to the adoption of lower levels of the Bateson-TPS model by emphasising higher levels, and, consequently, is there a direct causal relationship between specific higher and lower level elements?

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Set up a value-stream in every major market.Define value jointly with the customer around cost, quality, delivery and overall specification. Ensure a general sensitivity and awareness regarding customer needs and satisfaction throughout the organisation. Use personal relationships as an approach to understand what the customer really values.Rethink core products after obtaining an improved understanding of customer requirements.Involve customers in design from the outset Test whether end-designs meet customer requirements.Ensure the right processes are in place, producing the right results (e.g., maximise value add, accessible, competent, sufficient, facilitates flow, triggered by the customer, balanced). Find ways to deliver such value faster. Include the extend supply chain in redefining processes.Focus on the customer experience throughout the lifecycle of the product.Focus on internal (e.g.dealers) and external (e.g.motorists) customers when optimising for lifecycle value add.No evidence found linked to definition (S) Some evidence found to suggest activity is present (N) No evidence found to suggest activity is present